A&P. Review for Lecture Exam 1

Bios 357 Review Exam 1 (Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
1. What is the definition of Anatomy? Physiology?
2. What are the levels of organization of a human beginning with the smallest (chemical)?
3. What are homeostasis, homeostasis feedback and circuit?
4. What are the organ systems of a human?
5. What is the anatomical position?
6. What are the subatomic particles, their charge, and where are they found?
7. Understand the octet rule. How does this contribute to the formation of chemical bonds?
8. What are the major types of chemical bonds?
9. Understand the chemical reactions discussed in class.
10. What is the difference between polar and nonpolar compounds?
11. What is the pH scale, what is considered acidic, basic, what is a buffer?
12. Understand the basics of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
13. What is an enzyme, what is the function?
14. Understand hydrophilic, hydrophobic
15. Know the components of the cell membrane: lipid bilayer, integral vs peripheral proteins,
glycocalyx, pores, channels in the cell membrane
16. Know the major organelles and their functions
17. Understand the general process of protein synthesis; understand the difference between
mRNA, tRNA, and (ribosomal) rRNA.
18. Understand the different types of membrane transport at the plasma membrane and these
terms: diffusion, osmosis, passive vs active transport, ATPase pumps, vesicular transport,
(endocytosis, exocytosis, phagocytosis)
19. What are the 4 tissue categories in the body?
20. What are the characteristics and functions of epithelium?
21. Know the types of epithelium and examples of where they are found in the body
22. Understand the types and functions of the intracellular connections: gap junctions,
desmosomes, tight junctions,
23. Know the major exocrine glands and secretions. Know the difference between an
exocrine and endocrine gland.
24. Know the 3 main components of connective tissue: cell, ground substance, and fiber and
how each of these differs for the various connective tissue types.
25. Know the major connective tissue types, their general functions, compositions, and where
you might find them.
26. Which of the tissues that we discussed are avascular (not supplied by blood vessels)?
27. What are the 3 cartilage types, where would you find each type and what is the function?
28. What are the body membranes?
29. How does the epidermis grow and how long is it for a cell to move through? What are
the 4 or 5 layers?
30. What is the difference between thick and thin skin and where would you find each? 31. What is a Melanocyte? Keratinocyte? What are the functions of these cells?
32. What is inflammation and repair after tissue injury?
33. What 2 layers make up the skin?
34. What are the accessory skin structures?
35. What are the categories of burns?
36. What are the 3 main types of skin cancer?
37. What is the skin’s association with Vitamin D?
38. Identify a positive and a negative effect of exposure to UV sunlight

A&P. Chapter 1. The Human Organism

BIOS 357 Human Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 1: The Human Organism

Learning Outcomes

1)      Define the terms anatomy and physiology and identify the different ways in which they can be studied.

2)      Describe the chemical, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, and whole organism levels of organization.

3)      List the 11 organ systems, and indicate the major functions of each.

4)      List the characteristics of life.

5)      Explain the importance of studying other animals to help us to understand human anatomy and physiology.

6)      Define homeostasis, and explain homeostasis using the terms variable, set point, and normal range.

7)       Describe negative- and positive-feedback systems and their relationship to homeostasis.

8)      Describe the anatomical position, and use directional terms to describe the location of specific body structures.

9)      List the terms used to describe different regions or parts of the body.

10)  Name and describe the three major planes of the body or of an organ.

11)  Define the terms thoracic cavity, abdominal cavity, and mediastinum.

12)   Define serous membrane, and explain the relationship between parietal and visceral serous membranes.

13)  Name the membranes that line the walls and cover the organs of each body cavity, and name the fluid found inside each cavity.

14)  Define mesentery, and describe its function.

15)  Define the term retroperitoneal, and list examples of retroperitoneal organs.

Summary

1.1)            Anatomy and Physiology

1)      Anatomy is the study of the structures of the body.

2)      Systemic anatomy is the study of the body by organ systems. Regional anatomy is the study of the body by areas.

3)      Surface anatomy uses superficial structures to locate deeper structures, and anatomical imaging is a non-invasive method for examining deep structures.

4)      Physiology is the study of the processes and functions of the body. It can be approached according to the organism involved or level of organization.

1.2)            Structural and Functional Organization

1)      The human body can be organized into six levels:

a.      Chemical

b.      Cell

c.       Tissue

d.      Organ

e.      Organ System

f.        Organism

2)      The 11 organ systems are:

a.      Integumentary

b.      Skeletal

c.       Muscular

d.      Nervous

e.      Endocrine

f.        Cardiovascular

g.      Lymphatic

h.      Respiratory

i.        Digestive

j.        Urinary

k.       Reproductive

1.3)            Characteristics of Life

1)      The characteristics of life include organization, metabolism, responsiveness, growth, development, and reproduction.

1.4)            Homeostasis

1)      Homeostasis is the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment.

2)      Variables, such as body temperature, are maintained around a set point, resulting in a normal range of values.

1.4A)   Negative Feedback

1)      Negative-feedback mechanisms maintain homeostasis.

2)      Many negative-feedback mechanisms consist of a receptor, a control center, and an effector.

1.4B)    Positive Feedback

1)      Positive-feedback mechanisms make deviations from normal even greater.

2)      Although a few positive-feedback mechanisms normally exist in the body, most positive-feedback mechanisms are harmful.

1.5)            Terminology

1)      Body Positions

a.      A human standing erect with the face directed forward, the arms hanging to the sides, and the palms facing forward is in the anatomical position.

b.      A person lying face upward is supine and face downward is prone.

2)      Directional Terms

a.      Directional terms always refer to the anatomical position, regardless of the body’s actual position.

3)      Body Parts and Regions

a.      The body can be divided into the upper limbs, lower limbs, head, neck, and trunk.

b.      The abdomen can be divided superficially into four quadrants or nine regions that are useful for locating internal organs or describing the location of a pain.

4)      Planes

a.      A sagittal plane divides the body into left and right parts, a transverse plane divides the body into superior and inferior parts, and a frontal plane divides the body into anterior and posterior parts.

b.      A longitudinal section divides an organ along its axis, a cross section cuts an organ at a right angle to the long axis, and an oblique section cuts across the long axis at an angle other than a right angle.

5)      Body Cavities

a.      The thoracic cavity is bounded by the ribs and the diaphragm. The mediastinum divides the thoracic cavity into two parts.

b.      The abdominal cavity is bounded by the diaphragm and the abdominal muscles.

c.       The pelvic cavity is surrounded by the pelvic bones.

6)      Serous Membranes

a.      Serous membranes line the trunk cavities. The parietal part of a serous membrane lines the wall of the cavity, and the visceral part is in contact with the internal organs.

b.      The serous membranes secrete serous fluid that fills the space between the parietal and visceral membranes. The serous membranes protect organs from friction.

c.       The pericardial cavity surrounds the heart, the pleural cavities surround the lungs, and the peritoneal cavity surrounds certain abdominal and pelvic organs.

d.      Mesenteries are parts of the peritoneum that hold the abdominal organs in place and provide a passageway for blood vessels and nerves to organs.

e.      Retroperitoneal organs are located “behind” the parietal peritoneum. The kidneys, the adrenal glands, the pancreas, parts of the intestines, and the urinary bladder are examples of retroperitoneal organs.

PHHE 295. Chapter 15. Injuries as a Community Health Problem

PHHE 295

Chapter 15: Injuries as a Community Health Problem

Chapter Objectives

1)      Describe the importance of injuries as a community health problem.

2)      Explain why the terms accidents and safety have been replaced by the currently more acceptable terms unintentional injuries, injury prevention, and injury control when dealing with such occurrences.

3)      Briefly explain the difference between intentional and unintentional injuries and provide examples of each.

4)      List the four elements usually included in the definition of the term unintentional injury.

5)      Summarize the epidemiology of unintentional injuries.

6)      List strategies for the prevention and control of unintentional injuries.

7)      Explain how education, regulation, automatic protection, and litigation can reduce the number and seriousness of unintentional injuries.

8)      Define the term intentional injuries and provide examples of behavior that results in intentional injuries.

9)      Describe the scope of intentional injuries as a community health problem in the United States.

10)  List some contributing factors to domestic violence and some strategies to reducing it.

11)  List some of the contributing factors to the increase in violence related to youth gangs and explain what communities can do to reduce this level of violence.

12)  Discuss local, state, and national resources for preventing or controlling intentional injuries.

Key Terms

·         Injury: Physical damage to the body resulting from mechanical, chemical, thermal, or other environmental energy.

·         Unintentional Injury: An injury that occurred without anyone intending that harm to be done.

·         Intentional Injury: An injury that is purposely inflicted, either by the victim or by another.

·         Injury Prevention: An organized effort to prevent injuries or to minimize their severity.

·         Unsafe Act: Any behavior that would increase the probability of an injury occurring.

·         Unsafe Condition: Any environmental factor or set of factors that would increase the probability of an injury occurring.

·         Hazard: An unsafe act or condition.

·         Fatal Injury: An injury that results in one or more deaths.

·         Disabling Injury: An injury causing any restriction of normal activity beyond the day of the injury’s occurrence.

·         Model for Unintentional Injuries: The public health triangle modified to indicate energy as the causative agent of injuries.

·         Injury Prevention Education: The process of changing people’s health-directed behavior so as to reduce unintentional injuries.

·         Regulation: The enactment and enforcement of laws to control conduct.

·         Automatic Protection: The modification of a product or environment so as to reduce unintentional injuries.

·         Litigation: The process of seeking justice for injury through courts.

·         Family Violence: The use of physical force by one family member against another, with the intent to hurt, injure, or cause death.

·         Child Maltreatment: An act or failure to act by a parent, caretaker, or other person as defined under state law that results in physical abuse, neglect, medical neglect, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, or an act or failure to act that presents an imminent risk of serious harm to a child.

·         Child Abuse: The intentional physical, emotional, verbal, or sexual mistreatment of a minor.

·         Child Neglect: The failure of a parent or guardian to care for or otherwise provide the necessary subsistence for a child.

·         Intimate Partner Violence: Rape, physical assault, or stalking perpetrated by current or former dates, spouses, or cohabiting partners.

·         Youth Gang: An association of peers, bound by mutual interests and identifiable lines of authority, whose acts generally include illegal activity and control over a territory or an enterprise.

Chapter Summary

·         Injuries are the fifth leading cause of death in the United States.

·         Unintentional and intentional injuries represent a major community health problem, not only because of the loss of life but also because of lost productivity, medical costs, and the increase in the number of disabled Americans.

·         Unintentional injuries are unplanned events that are usually preceded by an unsafe act or condition. They are often accompanied by economic loss, and they interrupt the efficient completion of a task.

·         More fatal and nonfatal unintentional injuries occur in the home than at any other location.

·         Unintentional injuries occur across all age groups; however, they are the leading cause of death for younger Americans.

·         Motor vehicle accidents are the leading cause of unintentional injury deaths, followed by poisonings, falls, fires and burns, and drownings.

·         Males and certain minority groups suffer proportionately more unintentional injuries.

·         Prevention and control of unintentional injuries and fatalities can be instituted based on a model in which energy is the causative agent for injuries.

·         There are also four broad strategies that can prevent unintentional injuries:

o   1) Education

o   2) Regulation

o   3) Automatic Protection

o   4) Litigation

Together, these strategies may be used to reduce the numbers and seriousness of unintentional injuries in the community.

·         Intentional injuries are the outcome of self-directed or interpersonal violence.

·         The spectrum of violence includes assaults, rapes, robberies, suicides, homicides, and the maltreatment of children, elders, and intimate partners.

·         Minorities and young adults are at highest risk for injury or death from an intentional violent act.

·         Family violence, including child and elder maltreatment, and intimate partner violence, is a serious and pervasive community health problem.

·         Widely publicized fatal shootings in schools have once again focused national attention on violence in our schools. However, schools remain a relatively safe place for the nation’s youth.

·         Youth violence, including youth gang violence, grew in the 1990s but has since decline, in part because of federal, state, and local initiatives to address this problem.

·         Significant resources are available at the state and federal levels to assist local communities in reducing the number and seriousness of violence-related injuries.

PHHE 295. Chapter 14. Community Health and the Environment

PHHE 295

Chapter 14: Community Health and the Environment

Chapter Objectives

1)      List the sources and types of air pollutants, including the criteria pollutants, and explain the difference between primary and secondary pollutants.

2)      Describe the role of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in protecting the environment.

3)      Outline the provisions of the Clean Air Act, the National Ambient Air Quality Standards, and the Air Quality Index.

4)      List the major types of indoor air pollutants, including radon, and describe ways to reduce exposure to them.

5)      Explain the difference between point source and nonpoint source pollution.

6)      Define what is meant by the term waterborne disease outbreak and list some of the causative agents.

7)      Explain why we should not carelessly discard pharmaceuticals and personal care products.

8)      Describe the measures communities take to ensure the quality of drinking water and the measures communities take to manage wastewater.

9)      Explain the purposes of the Clean Water Act and the Safe Drinking Water Act.

10)  Name some of the agents associated with foodborne disease outbreaks and list some of the factors that lead to the occurrence of these outbreaks.

11)  List and describe the role of some of the agencies that help protect the safety of our food.

12)  Describe the composition of our municipal solid waste and outline acceptable municipal solid waste management strategies.

Key Terms

·         Environmental Health: The study and management of environmental conditions that affect the health and well-being of humans.

·         Environmental Hazards: Factors or conditions in the environments that increase the risk of human injury, disease, or death.

·         Air Pollution: Contamination of the air that interferes with the comfort, safety, and health of living organisms.

·         Primary Pollutants: Air pollutants emanating directly from transportation, power and industrial plants, and refineries.

·         Secondary Pollutants: Air pollutants formed when primary air pollutants react with sunlight and other atmospheric component to form new harmful compounds.

·         Photochemical Smog: Smog formed when air pollutants interact with sunlight.

·         Industrial Smog: Smog formed primarily by sulfur dioxide and suspended particles from the burning of coal, also known as gray smog.

·         Ozone: An inorganic molecule considered to be a pollutant in the atmosphere because it harms human tissue, but considered beneficial in the stratosphere because it screens out UV radiation.

·         Thermal Inversion: A condition that occurs when warm air traps cooler air at the surface of the earth.

·         Clean Air Act: The federal law that provides the government with authority to address interstate air pollution.

·         National Ambient Air Quality Standards: Standards created by the EPA for allowable concentration levels of outdoor air pollutants.

·         Environmental Protection Agency: The federal agency primarily responsible for setting, maintaining, and enforcing environmental standards.

·         Criteria Pollutants: The most pervasive air pollutants and those of greatest concern in the United States.

·         Air Quality Index: An index that indicates the level of pollution in the air and the associated health risk.

·         Greenhouse Gases: Atmosphere gases, principally carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, ozone, methane, water vapor, and nitrous oxide, that are transparent to visible light but absorb infrared radiation.

·         Asbestos: A naturally occurring mineral fiber that has been identified as a Class A carcinogen by the Environmental Protection Agency.

·         Biogenic Pollutants: Airborne biological organisms or their particles or gases or other toxic materials that can produce illness.

·         Combustion By-Products: Gases and particulates generated by burning.

·         Volatile Organic Compounds: Compounds that exist as vapors over the normal range of air pressures and temperatures.

·         Formaldehyde: A water-soluble gas used in aqueous solutions in hundreds of consumer products.

·         Carcinogens: Agents, usually chemicals, that cause cancer.

·         Radon: A naturally occurring colorless, tasteless, odorless, radioactive gas formed during the radioactive decay of uranium-238.

·         Environmental Tobacco Smoke: Tobacco smoke that can be inhaled by nonsmokers.

·         Secondhand Smoke: Environmental tobacco smoke.

·         Mainstream Smoke: Tobacco smoke inhaled and exhaled by the smoker.

·         Side-Stream Tobacco Smoke: Tobacco smoke that comes off the end of burning tobacco products.

·         Passive Smoking: The inhalation of environmental tobacco smoke by nonsmokers.

·         Sick Building Syndrome: A term to describe a situation in which the air quality in a building produces generalized signs and symptoms of ill health in the building’s occupants.

·         Sanitation: The practice of establishing and maintaining healthy or hygienic conditions in the environment.

·         Surface Water: Precipitation that does not infiltrate the ground or return to the atmosphere by evaporation; the water in streams, rivers, and lakes.

·         Groundwater: Water located under the surface of the ground.

·         Aquifers: Porous, water-saturated layers of underground bedrock sand, and gravel that can yield economically significant amounts of water.

·         Water Pollution: Any physical or chemical change in water that can harm living organisms or make the water unfit for other uses.

·         Point Source Pollution: Pollution that can be traced to a single identifiable source.

·         Nonpoint Source Pollution: All pollution that occurs through the runoff, seepage, or falling of pollutants into the water.

·         Runoff: Water that flows over land surfaces, typically from precipitation.

·         Waterborne Disease Outbreak: A disease in which at least two persons experience a similar illness after the ingestion of drinking water or after exposure to water used for recreational purposes and epidemiological evidence implicates water as the probable source of the illness.

·         Endocrine-Disrupting Chemical: A chemical that interferes in some way with the body’s endocrine system.

·         Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products: Synthetic chemicals found in everyday consumer health care products and cosmetics.

·         Wastewater: the aqueous mixture that remains after water has been used or contaminated by humans.

·         Wastewater Treatment: The process of improving the quality of wastewater to the point that it can be released into a body of water without seriously disrupting the aquatic environment, causing health problems in humans, or causing nuisance conditions.

·         Sludge: A semiliquid mixture of solid waste that includes bacteria, viruses, organic matter, toxic metals, synthetic organic chemicals, and solid chemicals.

·         Septic Tank: A watertight concrete or fiberglass tank that holds sewage; one of two main parts of a septic system.

·         Absorption Fluid: The element of a septic system in which the liquid portion of waste is distributed.

·         Clean Water Act: The federal law aimed at ensuring that all rivers are swimmable and fishable and that limits the discharge of pollutants in U.S. waters to zero.

·         Watershed: The area of land from which all of the water that is under it or drains from it goes into the same place and drains in one point.

·         Safe Drinking Water Act: The federal law that regulates the safety of public drinking water.

·         Foodborne Disease Outbreak: The occurrence of two or more cases of a similar illness resulting from the ingestion of food.

·         Pest: Any organism—a multi-celled animal or plant, or a microbe—that has an adverse effect on human interests.

·         Pesticides: Synthetic chemicals developed and manufactured for the purpose of killing pests.

·         Target Organism: The organism for which a pesticide is applied.

·         Non-Target Organisms: All other susceptible organisms in the environment, for which a pesticide was not intended.

·         Registered Environmental Health Specialists: Environmental workers responsible for the inspection of restaurants, retail food outlets, public housing, and other sites to ensure compliance with public health codes.

·         Solid Waste: Solid refuse from households, agriculture, and business.

·         Municipal Solid Waste: Waste generated by individual households, businesses, and institutions located within municipalities.

·         Hazardous Waste: A solid waste combination of solid wastes that is dangerous to human health or the environment.

·         Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976: The federal law that sets forth guidelines for the proper handling and disposal of hazardous wastes.

·         Solid Waste Management: The collection, transportation, and disposal of solid waste.

·         Source Reduction: A waste management approach involving the reduction or elimination of the use of materials that produce an accumulation of solid waste.

·         Recycling: The collecting, sorting, and processing of materials that would otherwise be considered waste into raw materials for manufacturing new products, and the subsequent use of those new products.

·         Composting: The natural, aerobic biodegradation of organic plant and animal matter to compost.

·         Sanitary Landfills: Waste disposal sites on land suited for this purpose and on which waste is spread in thin layers, compacted, and covered with a fresh later of clay or plastic foam each day.

·         Leachates: Liquids created when water mixes with wastes and removes soluble constituents from them by percolation.

·         Combustion: The burning of solid wastes.

·         Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act: The federal law created to clean up abandoned hazardous waste sites.

·         Brownfields: Property where reuse is complicated by the presence of hazardous substances from prior use.

·         Lead: A naturally occurring mineral element found throughout the environment and used in large quantities for industrial products, including batteries, pipes, solder, paints, and pigments.

·         Vector: A living organism, usually an insect or other arthropod, that can transmit a communicable disease agent to a susceptible host.

·         Vectorborne Disease Outbreak: An occurrence of an unexpectedly large number of cases of disease caused by an agent transmitted by insects or other arthropods.

·         Natural Hazard: Naturally occurring phenomenon or event that produces or releases energy in amounts that exceed human endurance, causing injury, disease, or death.

·         Radiation: A process in which energy is emitted as particles or waves.

·         Ionizing Radiation: High-energy radiation that can knock an electron out of orbit, creating an ion, and can thereby damage living cells and tissues.

·         Ultraviolet Radiation: Radiation energy with wavelengths 0-400 nanometers.

·         Natural Disaster: A natural hazard that results in substantial loss of life or property.

·         Carrying Capacity: The maximum population of a particular species that a given habitat can support over a given period of time.

·         Bias and Hate Crimes: Crimes that occur when offenders choose a victim because of some characteristic—for example, race, ethnicity, or religion—and provide evidence that the hate prompted them to commit the crime.

·         Terrorism: Calculated use of violence against civilians to attain goals that are political or religious in nature.

·         Federal Emergency Management Agency: The nation’s official emergency response agency.

·         American Red Cross: A nonprofit humanitarian organization led by volunteers and guided by its Congressional Charter that provides relief to victims of disasters.

Chapter Summary

·         Environmental health is the study and management of environmental conditions that affect our health and well-being. Environmental hazards increase our risk of injury, disease, or death.

·         Air pollution is contamination of the air by gases, liquids, or solids in amounts that harm humans, other living organisms, or the ecosystem or that change the climate. Sources of primary air pollutants are stationary or mobile. Secondary air pollutants arise from the interaction of primary air pollutants and sunlight.

·         Efforts to regulate air quality include the Clean Air Act of 1963 and its amendements, which resulted in the establishment of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards. The Environmental Protection Agency calculates the Air Quality Index to help people relate air quality to their health.

·         Indoor air pollutants include asbestos, biogenic materials, combustion by-products, and volatile organic compounds. Radon gas and environmental tobacco smoke pose additional indoor air threats to our health.

·         The United States has the safest water in the world. Nonetheless, point source and increasingly nonpoint source pollution threaten the safety of our water supply.

·         Waterborne disease outbreaks caused by biological and non-biological pollutants are reported each year, with an increasing proportion of outbreaks being associated with recreational water use.

·         Population growth, chemical manufacturing, and reckless land use practice contribute to the deterioration of our water quality.

·         Municipal water treatment plants provide water for domestic use, and wastewater treatment plants to remove much of the waste before used water is returned to the environment.

·         Water quality is regulated by two important laws:

o   1) The Clean Water Act

o   2) The Safe Drinking Water Act

·         More than 200 known diseases are transmitted through the food we eat. Foodborne disease outbreaks occur each year and are reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

·         The U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Food and Drug Administration inspect food processing plants and enforce health and safety standards. Registered environmental health specialists inspect local restaurants and retail food outlets to enforce food preparation and food handling laws, thereby protecting consumers.

·         Solid and hazardous waste management is another environmental concern. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act governs the management of both municipal and hazardous solid waste, and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act governs the cleanup of existing hazardous waste sites.

·         Of special concern are the many toxic chemicals and heavy metals, such as lead, that can leach into sources of our drinking water.

·         Vectorborne diseases such as West Nile fever and Lyme Disease, represent another group of environmental health concerns. These diseases affect thousands of people each year and are difficult to predict or control.

·         Natural hazards include high-energy radiation and natural environmental events such as earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, and weather-related events such as tornados, hurricanes, and floods.

·         Avoiding exposure to ionizing radiation can reduce one’s risk for skin cancer and other health problems.

·         Natural environmental events that cause extensive loss of human life are called natural disasters.

·         Uncontrolled population growth can contribute to psychological and sociological hazards.

·         FEMA and the American Red Cross are two agencies that prepare for and respond to natural disasters.